The role of electrical stimulation in bone repair review

Endpoint

• molecular biosynthesis: growth factor synthesis (e.g. insulin-like growth factor II)
• cell function: interaction at the cell membrane (signal transduction pathways)
• treatment/therapy: effects of electric and electromagnetic fields on the repair of bone defects, fresh fractures, osteotomies, and fracture nonunions

Exposure

• • electric field
• • electrotherapy